3　在帶有插入語的定語從句中who和whom的選用。

關系代詞who/whom在其引導的定語從句中擔任主語成分時用主格who，擔任賓語成分時用賓格whom，這點很簡單，但有時它們引導的定語從句帶有插入語，而該插入語的前后也不用逗號隔開，因此不易區(qū)分它是定語從句中的插入語還是定語從句中的主謂結構；這時就產生用主格who還是用賓格whom這一困難。試比較：

Jason is a man who I believe is honest.

［分析］在定語從句who I believe is honest中，I believe是插入語，去掉該插入語剩下的便是Jason is a man who is honest，在語法及句意上都能成立，who是定語從句中動詞is的主語，故用主格，不能用whom。

Jason is a man whom I believe (to be) honest.

［分析］在定語從句whom I believe (to be) honest中，如把I believe當作插入語而予以刪掉的話，剩下的句子結構便成為Jason is a man whom (to be) honest，顯然不合語法，因而I believe不是插入語，而是定語從句中的主謂結構，whom作believe的賓語，故不能用主格形式who；顯然，(to be) honest是whom的賓語補語。

The girl who we supposed had run away from home came back.

［分析］we supposed是插入語，因去掉后，The girl who had run away from home came back仍成立，who是謂語had run away from home的主語，故不能用賓語形式whom。

The girl whom we supposed to have run away from home came back.

［分析］如把we supposed當作插入語予以刪掉，剩下的句子結構The girl whom to have run away from home came back在語法上不能成立，故在這句中we supposed不是插入語而是定語從句的主謂成分，whom作supposed的賓語，因而不能用主格形式who，to have run away from home作whom的賓語補語。

例　Standing (A) by a fine model of Fujiyama was the boy whom (B) everyone thought (C) would be chosen the winner by (D) the judges.

［分析］B錯，改為who，因定語從句中everyone thought是插入語，去掉后定語從句語法上仍然成立，who作would be chosen的主語。

4　whose在使用上必須注意的兩點。

A. whose在它所引導的定語從句中起定語作用，它既可代表人又可代表物。

This is the house whose windows (=the windows of which或of which the windows) are all broken.

I know of a chemical compound（化合物）whose structure (=the structure of which) is the same as this.

B. whose在它所引導的定語從句中常和it連用，it起形式主語作用。

試比較下面兩個例句：

A writer is a person whose duty is to write.［whose引導定語從句，主語duty為whose所修飾，不定式to write為表語］A writer is a person whose duty it is to write.［whose也是引導定語從句，it是形式主語，真正主語是不定式to write］

兩個例句意思完全相同，只是結構不同而已，在實際應用中第二式比第一式更為常見。

例　“Did the audience participate in the play?”

“Yes, the actors_____to involve the audience were successful.”

A. whom it was the function

B. of which the function was

C. whose function it was

D. whose were the function

［分析］掌握了上述whose在其引導的定語從句中和it連用的這一結構后，便能輕易地選擇了C這個正確答案。

例　It is uncommon to find an excellent researcher_____.

A. which is as well a very good teacher

B. what is a competent teacher as well

C. who is also a competent teacher

D. who teaches also very well

［分析］先行詞researcher（研究員）是人，它的關系代詞應是who或that，故選C。不選D的理由是，在句子中副詞also的正常位置應在be的后面或實義動詞之前，這里需把also放在實義動詞teaches之前才對。

例　“Who is it?”

“This is the actress_____his father claims has seduced（勾引了）his son!”

A. who

B. whom

C. that

D. which

［分析］先行詞actress（女演員）后面的關系代詞可用who或that，但句中his father claims是插入語；在引導帶有插入語的定語從句中，其先行詞是人時，通常用who而不用that，故選A。

例　There are (A) many organizations which (B) sole purpose is (C) to help (D) mentally retarded children.

［分析］B錯。在上題的定語從句中，主語是purpose，故關系代詞應起定語作用，把which改為whose（whose也可用來指事物）。另一種改法則是of which the sole purpose或the sole purpose of which。

2. 關系代詞who，whom，which和that的主要用法

1　which的先行詞可以是一個句子。

which的先行詞通常是一個名詞，但有時候它的先行詞可以是一個句子，即which有時候可以用來代表前面一個句子所表示的意思，這種用法很普遍，如：

George failed in the TOEFL examination, which shows he had not worked hard enough.［which指failed in the TOEFL examination］

Olaf lost his way, which delayed him considerably.［which指lost his way］

在上列兩個例句中，which可用兩個字來代替，即and that，也就是說，當which代表一個句子時，它所引導的定語從句可以變成一個獨立的分句；以上兩例可以改寫如下：

? George failed in the TOEFL examination, and that shows he had not worked hard enough.

? Olaf lost his way, and that delayed him considerably.

2　先行詞是一個集體名詞時，which和who的選用。

當先行詞是一個指人的集體名詞時，如果著眼于該集體的整體，關系代詞用which；如若要表示該集體中的各個成員，則用who。

The football team, which is playing very well, will most probably place first（得第一名）in the league matches（聯(lián)賽）.

The football team, who are having baths, will be back here for tea.

3　先行詞前有最高級形容詞、only、any或no時，關系代詞的選用。

當先行詞前有最高級形容詞、only，any或no時關系代詞用that，不用which。如：

Professor Smith is the best（最高級）mathematician that has ever visited our university.

Linda is the only person that understands me.

No sample that we have received is satisfactory.

Please send me any information that you have about the subject matter（題材）.

4　在little，much，all，none，everything等詞后面關系代詞的選用。

在用作名詞的little，much和代詞all，everything，something，anything，nothing，none后面也宜用that：

All that glitters is not gold. 閃光發(fā)亮的并不都是金子。（莎翁名句）

［注：這一莎翁名句的原式是All is not gold that glitters.］

5　在everybody，somebody等詞后面that和who/whom的選用。

在everybody，everyone，anybody，anyone，somebody，someone等詞后面宜用who/whom：

When I entered, they were talking about somebody whom I didnt know.

Is there anyone here who knows Spanish?

如果先行詞是who，便只能用that作為其關系代詞，如：

Who that you have seen can do better? 你曾見過誰能做得更好？

6　前面有兩個性質不同的先行詞時，that和who/whom的選用。

遇到有兩個先行詞，一個指人，一個指物時，這時應用that：

Larry spoke highly of the actor and his performance that he saw at the theater.［that代表the actor and his performance］

The scholar and his achievement that the newspaper covered（報道）are greatly admired by the teachers and students alike.［that代表the scholar and his achievement］

7　關系代詞that前面不能有介詞，必須把介詞移至句子末尾才正確。

Here is the book about that I told you.（×）

Here is the book that I told you about.（√）

Have you seen the film on that the newspaper comments?（×）

Have you seen the film that the newspaper comments on?（√）

?? 但which和whom前面則可帶有介詞：

Here is the book about which I told you.

He is the man to whom the newspaper gave coverage（報道）.

例　The seventeenth century was one in that (A) many significant advances (B) were made in (C) both (D) science and philosophy.

［分析］顯然A錯。that作為關系代詞時前面不能有介詞，把A改為in which (=in the seventeenth century）。

注：in that連用時變成一個連詞，相當于for the reason that；because（因為；由于；在于）；如：Men differ from brutes in that they can think and speak. 人不同于禽獸，在于人會思考、會說話。

8　whom和which與不定式及介詞連用的結構。

關系代詞whom和which還可和不定式連用，但前面需加介詞，或省掉關系代詞把介詞移至句末，即“介詞+whom/which+不定式”或“（whom/which省掉）不定式+介詞”。如：

Hob is a pleasant young man with whom to work.

Hob is a pleasant young man to work with.［省掉whom，較口語化］

I have no money with which to buy a car.

I have no money to buy a car with.［省掉which，較口語化］

把上面每組例句進行比較即會發(fā)現(xiàn)，把介詞移至句末需省去關系代詞，不然就不合英語習慣，試再比較：

Bob has no money with which to buy books.［正式的書面英語］

Bob has no money which to buy books with.［×因介詞移至句末時必須省去關系代詞］

Bob has no money to buy books with.［√系口語化，在正式英語里也能成立］

What is the proper age at which to marry?［正式書面英語］

What is the proper age which to marry at?［×］

What is the proper age to marry at?［√口語］

例　That (A) is one of the many (B) tools which (C) I find it hard to work with (D).

［分析］在which I find it hard to work with的定語從句中，it是形式賓語，真正的賓語是不定式短語to work with，介詞with置于句末應把關系代詞which省略，故C錯，刪去即可。另一種改法是，把with移至which前，即with which I find it hard to work，但這種改法需牽動D和C兩個部分，既不符合試題要求，語言也顯得生硬、不自然。

3. 關系代詞的省略

1　關系代詞在其所引導的從句中作賓語時，可省略。

The man (whom) you saw there is head of our department.

Alan is a man who is strict with himself in everything (that) he does.

The tickets (which) you spoke of were sold out.

例　“What game is popular with them?”“The_____most is tennis.”

A. game they like it

B. best game they like

C. best game they like it

D. game they like

［分析］應選D。在The game (which) they like most is tennis這一題句中，which作like的賓語可省略。A中it系重復賓語，B中best和題句中的most字義重疊，也須刪去。

2　關系代詞在從句中作表語（又稱主語補語）時，通常省略。

Isabels (=Isabel has) changed.She is no longer the girl (that) she was.

3　關系代詞引導的從句修飾賓語補語并在其引導的從句中作表語時，通常省略。

Bills changed a lot. I wonder what has made him the man (that) he is.

4　關系代詞在它引導的從句中作主語時則不能省略，但如果該從句帶有there is這一結構時，作主語的關系代詞宜省略。

注意，在這一結構中先行詞前都須有the+最高級形容詞來修飾。

Please show me the latest reference book (that) there is on this subject.

This is the fastest train (that) there is to Michigan.

4. 用于限制性定語從句和非限制性定語從句的關系代詞

1　用于限制性定語從句的關系代詞。

限制性定語從句與它所修飾的先行詞在意義上有著不可分割的聯(lián)系，它對先行詞起著限制、確定的作用，因此限制性定語從句和先行詞之間沒有逗號，講話時兩者之間沒有停頓，應一氣呵成。能引導限制性定語從句的關系代詞通常是who，whom，whose，that和which：

William Douglas is a man whose word is as good as his bond（一諾千金）.

Johnny is one of the men whom I feel I can trust.

The student who fell sick yesterday is now well.

The novel which you lent me was very interesting.

Lu Xun was one of the greatest writers that China has ever had.

2　關系代詞引導限制性定語從句時需注意的兩個問題。

A. 一個句子含有兩個不同層次的限制性定語從句時的處理。

在實際應用中，有時一個句子會含有兩個不同層次的限制性定語從句。在這種情況下，引導第一個限制性定語從句的關系代詞通常被省去，引導第二個限制性定語從句的關系代詞，即使處于賓語地位，也不予省略，這兩個限制性定語從句之間也不用連詞and：

Is there anything（that被省略）you want that you have not?

［分析］第一個that被省略，其先行詞是anything，第二個that雖在從句中作動詞have的賓語，則不能省略。其先行詞不是anything，而是anything (that) you want；這兩個限制性定語從句不在同一層次上，故不用and連接。

Mr. Burson is the only dealer（that被省略）we know who gives good prices.

［分析］第一個被省略的that的先行詞是dealer，第二個關系代詞who的先行詞則是the only dealer (that) we know；這兩個限制性定語從句也不在同一層次上，故也不用and連接。

這種結構在書面及口頭上都會碰到。據說基辛格博士初任美國國務卿職務時，曾派人到駐華盛頓的各國使館征求意見，當時一位蘇聯(lián)使館官員曾說“Dr.Kissinger is the only person（that被省略）we know who can eat caviar with chopsticks.”caviar（魚子醬）指蘇聯(lián)，chopsticks（筷子）指中國，這句話的含義是，基辛格博士是唯一能妥善處理中、蘇兩國關系的人。這句英語原文也是帶有兩個不同層次的限制性定語從句。第一個關系代詞that被省略，其先行詞為person，第二個關系代詞who的先行詞為the only person (that) we know。兩個從句之間，由于層次不同，也不用連詞and。

B. 同一個先行詞跟有兩個并列的限制性定語從句時的處理。

同一個先行詞，其后跟有兩個并列的限制性定語從句時，引導它們的關系代詞通常不能省略，兩個從句必須用and連接：

This practice book is intended for foreign students of arts who have mastered the elements of English and who now want to use their knowledge of the language to read books on their own subjects.

3　用于非限制性定語從句的關系代詞。

非限制性定語從句和它所修飾的先行詞關系比較松散，它只是對先行詞進行補充說明；因此，非限制性定語從句和先行詞之間通常用逗號分開。除that只能引導限制性定語從句外，其余關系代詞都能引導非限制性定語從句：

I told the secret to Freddy, who（不能用that）later told it to his girl friend.

That scientist, whose work is very important to the welfare of mankind, has been awarded a Nobel Prize.

Miss Smith, whom（不能用that）you met at our house, is going to marry Mr. Abbott.

The current, which（不能用that）is very rapid, makes the river dangerous.

從上述例句來看，非限制性定語從句前后均被逗號分開，故就其意義來說，非限制性定語從句往往相當于一個并列或獨立的句子，因而以上四例也可這么寫：

? I told the secret to Freddy, and he later told it to his girl friend.

? That scientists work is very important to the welfare of mankind. He has been awarded a Nobel Prize.

? Miss Smith is going to marry Mr. Abbott. You met her at our house.

? The current is very rapid. It makes the river dangerous.

例　Great Salt Lake is fed by freshwater streams, _____is about four to five times as salty as the ocean.

A. yet

B. which

C. there

D. that

［分析］應選B，which指Great Salt Lake，用來引導非限制性定語從句，前面有逗號隔開，which is about...=and it is about...，it也指Great Salt Lake。D不妥，因that不能引導非限制性定語從句。A項中yet后應補充it，充當主語。C不合語法。

which引導非限制性定語從句時，也可以指前面一個短語或從句所包括的意思，這時which和先行詞之間只有意義上的聯(lián)系而沒有句法上的聯(lián)系。如：

The decision was postponed, which was exactly what he wanted. 決議延期作出，這正是他所要求的。［which指The decision was postponed, which=and that］

Audrey said she had lost her watch, which was not true. 奧蕾說她的手表丟了，那不是真的。［which指she had lost her watch, which=and that］

例　Our friends are expected to assume the burden of their own defense, _____they are competent to do.

A. which we are certain

B. that we are certain of

C. of which we are sure

D. for which we are sure

［分析］應選A。which的先行詞不是burden，而是不定式短語to assume the burden of their own defense，在它所引導的非限制性定語從句中which作不定式to do的賓語。that不能引導非限制性定語從句，be certain (sure)后面接從句時，不能再用介詞，故B，C和D都錯。

4　關系代詞所引導的限制性定語從句和非限制性定語從句的比較。

這兩種定語從句首先是意義不同，從而也造成結構上的不同。限制性定語從句是把主句和從句作為一個表意整體來考慮的，因而關系緊密，不用逗號分開，從句去掉則會造成原句句意的不完整。非限制定語從句是把主句和從句作為分開的表意單位來考慮的，因而關系松弛，通常用逗號隔開，從句去掉后，主句也能單獨成立。關系代詞引導的這兩種定語從句在含義上也有差別。試比較：

Romola who has six children has never gone to college.［限制性定語從句］

生有六個兒女的蘿莫拉從未上過大學。潛臺詞是：還有其他名叫蘿莫拉的婦女，她或她們可能上過大學。

Romola, who has six children, has never gone to college.［非限制性定語從句］

蘿莫拉有六個孩子，她從來未上過大學。潛臺詞是：只有一個名叫蘿莫拉的婦女。

I have a sister who is in Taiwan.［限制性定語從句］

我有一個住在臺灣的姐姐。潛臺詞是：我還有其他姐姐，她或她們住在別的地方。

I have a sister, who is in Taiwan.［非限制性定語從句］

我有一個姐姐，她住在臺灣。潛臺詞是：我只有一個姐姐。

There were very few passengers that（或who）had escaped without serious injury.［限制性定語從句］

沒有受重傷而逃出來的旅客很少。潛臺詞是：逃出來的旅客絕大多數都受重傷。

There were very few passengers, who（不能用that）had escaped without serious injury.［非限制性定語從句］

旅客很少，他們都逃出來了，沒有受重傷。潛臺詞是：旅客的人數極少，沒有其他旅客受到什么重傷。

?? 有時候，定語從句的逗號用與不用會使句意大相徑庭。例如：

His mother, who is a teacher, is 50 years old this year.［非限制性定語從句］

他的媽媽是個老師，今年50歲。

His mother who is a teacher is 50 years old this year.［限制性定語從句］

他那個做老師的媽媽今年50歲。（言外之意他還有做其他工作的媽媽。）

據說，好幾十年前，一位英國的牧師忠于職守，與其教民關系甚為融洽；記者采訪他時，為顯示要與教民打成一片，該牧師表態(tài)平時不喜歡穿牧師服，并說，“I will wear no clothes which will distinguish me from my fellow-men.”（限制性定語從句），意為“我不愿意穿那種使我有別于我的同胞的衣服”，含意是他要與他的教民打成一片。

但當該牧師的話在報紙上轉述時，在關系代詞which前誤加了一個逗號“，”。這樣一來，原本的限制性定語從句頓時變成非限制性定語從句，即：“I will wear no clothes, which will distinguish me form my fellow-man.”一下子句意大相徑庭，變成“我不喜歡穿衣服，寧愿赤身裸體，這樣就可使我顯得與我的同胞不同了?！?/p>

據傳，見報當天，一片嘩然，讀者笑倒，牧師昏倒。

5　關系代詞引導的限制性定語從句和非限制性定語從句的其他語法功能。

限制性定語從句和非限制性定語從句有時在一定的上下文中可起到狀語從句作用，表示原因、目的、結果、條件、讓步等：

The manager gave interviews to a few candidates, from among whom he wanted to choose one.［from among whom...相當于because he wanted to choose one...的意思，表示原因］

Solomon was diligent, responsible, and intelligent, for which he was promoted from a clerk to a manager.［for which...相當于so that he was promoted...的意思，表示結果］

He would be a bad businessman who merely did buying and selling without investigating market potentialities.［主句中的would be加上who merely did，再結合句意來看，可說相當于if he merely did buying and selling without...的意思，表示條件］

Many people who had few advantages in their youth have done great things for their country.［主句，對從句來說，在意思上是個轉折，意同Many people, though they had few advantages in their youth, ...表讓步］

I wish to write to the newspaper a letter of complaint that will attract public attention to the matter.［that will attract public attention...相當于so that（或that）it may attract public attention to the matter，表示結果］

上述關系代詞引導的定語從句所顯示的狀語功能需視特定的語言環(huán)境而定。了解和掌握定語從句的這一特殊功能將有助于我們正確理解原文的含義。

6　關系代詞和關系副詞在用法上的區(qū)別。

除關系代詞外，還有三個關系副詞可用來引導定語從句。它們是when (=in/at/on which)，表示時間；where (=in/at/on which)，表示地點；why (=for which)，表示原因。when和where可引導限制性及非限制性定語從句；why只能引導限制性定語從句：

I still remember the day when (=on which) you wore that beautiful pink dress.［限制性］

We shall put off the picnic till next week, when (=at which time) the weather may be fine.［非限制性］

This is the place where (=in which) a large dormitory will be built for the families of our teachers.［限制性］

We went to the Grand Theater, where we saw Ibsens A Dolls Family（《玩偶之家》）.［非限制性］

There is no reason why (=for which) I should not accept the offer.［限制性］

?? 關系副詞在其所引導的定語從句中只能起狀語作用，即它引導的從句主謂結構必須完整，如果謂語是及物動詞的話，后面需有賓語。掌握這一點對實際應用和應試都很重要。以下是一些常見的病句及對各句的剖析：

例　Caruso came from a place where nobody knew.

［分析］where引導的定語從句中，動詞knew系及物動詞，缺賓語，where只能起副詞作用，不能充當knew的賓語，故須把where改為關系代詞which。

例　Lets go to the office in where he works.

［分析］where不能用作介詞in的賓語，須把where改為which，即in which he works，或去掉in，成為where he works，where在此句里相當于in which。

例　That is the period in when Clifton lived here.

［分析］when也不能用作介詞in的賓語，把when改為which，即in which Clifton lived或去掉in，when Clifton lived here等同于in which Clifton lived here。但when作為關系副詞，有一個例外，即它有時可變作代詞，通?？勺鹘樵~since和until/till的賓語，如：I saw her a few months ago, since when (=since that time) I have not heard anything of her。

例　I never understood the reason why he did it for.

［分析］why這里也用作關系副詞，不能作for的賓語，改為for which he did it或刪掉for，成為why he did it。

例　Constructed (A) in Chicago in 1883, the Home Insurance Building was the first building in the world that (B) the floors and the exterior (C) masonry walls were supported (D) by a skeleton framework of metal.

［分析］B錯。在關系代詞that引導的定語從句“that the floors and the exterior masonry walls were supported by a skeleton framework of metal”中，主謂結構已完整，故該定語從句不能用that來引導，應改用關系副詞where或in which。

例　There comes a time in every mans life_____.

A. then he has to think

B. which he needs

C. when he has to think

D. therefore he has to work hard

［分析］應選C，when系關系副詞，在這里同at which，定語從句when he has to think修飾time，不是修飾life，該定語從句主謂結構已完整，故用關系副詞when引導。

5. 關系代詞as的用法

1　用于the same...as...，same as ...，such as ...，such...as...，so...as...和as...as...的結構中。

During our visit to Honolulu, we saw so great a Thanksgiving Day parade as nobody had ever dreamt of in our own city. 在我們訪問檀香山期間，我們見到了在我們城市誰都不曾夢想過的一次盛大的感恩節(jié)游行。

You can buy as many copies of this book as you want. 這本書你要多少本就能買多少本。［第一個as是副詞，第二個as是關系代詞］

He is as great a calligrapher as ever lived.

=He is one of the greatest calligraphers that ever lived. 他是有史以來最偉大的書法家之一。

These apple are not such asI bought yesterday. 這些蘋果不是我昨天買的那一種。

Such people as know Irene like her. 認識艾琳的人都喜歡她。

例　Jacques Yves Cousteau has estimated (A) that only (B) one third to one half as many fish and other forms of marine life live in (C) the oceans now that (D) lived there twenty years ago.

［分析］D錯。關系代詞that的先行詞是fish and other forms of marine life。當先行詞前面有as時，引導定語從句的關系代詞應用as，即上面所說的as...as結構，故把D改為as。題意是“雅克?伊夫?庫斯托已作出估計，20年前生活在海洋中的許多魚類和其他海洋生物如今只有其中的三分之一到二分之一還存活著?！?/p>

2　用來代表主句所表達的意思。

as作為關系代詞還可用來指代它前面或后面的主句所表達的意思。as可置于句首或句子后部，在它所引導的定語從句中必須承擔一定的語法成分，即不是作主語就是作賓語：

As you will find out, I will never let you down（決不拋棄你/決不使你失望）.

［分析］as指代I will never let you down，在它引導的定語從句中作find out的賓語。

As is announced in todays newspapers, there will be an earthquake of magnitude 4（4級地震）in the next few days.

［分析］as 代表there will be an earthquake of magnitude 4，在它引導的定語從句中作主語，故as后面不能再加上it。在“As is announced in...”中，is也可省略。

I usually take forty winks（小睡一會兒）after lunch, as is my habit.

［分析］as置于句子后部，在其引導的定語從句中作主語，as后面不能加上it。

Louisa is a bit out of her mind（有點神智失常）, as all her acquaintances can see.

［分析］as代表Louisa is a bit out of her mind，在它所引導的定語從句中作動詞see的賓語，故在see后不可再加上it。

His was a Japanese, as we perceived by his accent.（他是日本人，這是我們從他的口音中聽出來的。）

［分析］perceived是及物動詞，as充當其賓語，故perceived后不能加it。

?? 注意，不要把用作關系代詞的as和用作連詞的as混淆起來。as用作關系代詞時，只能代表一個句子，絕不能代表一個單詞。如：

English as spoken in Australia is slightly different from British English.

［分析］as前面只有English一個單詞，故as便不是關系代詞而是連詞，as spoken in Australia=as (it is) spoken in Australia，it指English。

又如Oxford as I see it（我所見到的牛津大學），as之前只有一個單詞Oxford，故是連詞，在它引導的從句中see是及物動詞，后面的it代表Oxford作其賓語，不能省掉。

例　The telephone_____was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell.

A. as is known by us

B. as do we know it

C. as we know it

D. as we know

［分析］as前只有單詞telephone，不能用作關系代詞，而應作連詞用，故正確的選擇應是C。如果把上題中的as從句置于句首或句末，這時as便指主句所表達的意思，變成代詞，作know的賓語，我們就該選D，即：As we know, the telephone was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell。（或：The telephone was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell, as we know.）

3　as和which用來指代主句所表達的內容時用法上的區(qū)別。

as和which作為關系代詞，都能代替主句所表達的意思，區(qū)別是：which通常指前面提到的情況或內容，即which引導的非限制性定語從句只能放在主句后面。as既可指前面已經提到的，也可指后面將提到的內容，有“為人所熟知，顯然”的含義；as后面出現(xiàn)be+過去分詞結構時，be也可省略。比較：

As（不用which）is known to us all, Cambridge University is one of the most famous institutions of higher learning in the world. 眾所周知，劍橋大學是世界最著名的高等學府之一。

More American troops are being sent to the Middle East, as/which I have learnt from the newspaper. 更多的美國部隊在被派往中東地區(qū)，這是我從報紙上獲悉的。

The structure is very complicated, as（不用which，is省略）shown in the figure. 如圖所示，這個結構非常復雜。

As（不用which）a poet points out, life is but a dream. 正如一位詩人指出的那樣，生活只不過是一場夢。［but用作副詞，=only］

4　as作為代詞引導的一些常見結構。

as is well known/as is known to all 眾所周知

as is often the case 情況常常如此

as may be imagined 可以想象

as often happens 這種情況常常發(fā)生

as has been said before 如前所述

as is usual with sb. 某人經常如此

as is natural 很自然

as is supposed/expected/anticipated 恰如所料

as will be shown in... 將在……中指出

6. 關系代詞but的用法

1　but用作關系代詞時，作“who/that...not...”或“which...not...”解，用在否定結構后面。

There is no rule（否定）but has exceptions. 沒有一條規(guī)則沒有例外。（即條條規(guī)則都有例外。）

=There is no rule that does not have exceptions.（即同：Every rule has exceptions.）

There is no one here（否定）but has applied for a scholarship. 這里人人申請過獎學金。

=There is no one here who has not applied for a scholarship.（即同：Everyone here has applied for a scholarship.）

?? but這一結構通過雙重否定以達到強烈肯定的修辭效果。我們就可用這一結構來英譯這一漢語句子“沒有人不同情這么多海嘯受難者?！?“There is no man but feels pity for the numerous tsunami victims.”

2　but前的否定結構往往采用省略形式。

No rule but has exceptions.

No one here but has applied for a scholarship.

例　There is (A) no work (B) whatever what (C) he can (D) criticize.

［分析］句中whatever作副詞，作“一點……也（at all）”解，用在疑問句或否定句里。題句中第一部分=There is no work at all，系否定結構，故C錯，應改為but。There is no work whatever but he can criticize.=There is no work whatever (=There is no work at all) that he can not criticize.雙重否定表示強烈肯定。

例　There are very few rules of grammar_____.

A. that are not with exceptions

B. but have exceptions

C. not having exception to them

D. not with exception to them

［分析］選B，句子前部屬否定結構，but這里作“that/which...not...”解；but have exceptions等同于that do not have exceptions。

十、連接代詞

關系代詞who，whom，whose和which也可用作連接代詞；除這些詞外，還有what這一連接代詞。

1. 連接代詞和關系代詞的異同

1　表現(xiàn)在先行詞上。

關系代詞前面必須有一個先行詞，關系代詞引導的定語從句是用來修飾它的先行詞的：

Bobby is the pleasantest colleague that I have ever worked with.

［分析］關系代詞that引導的定語從句修飾其先行詞colleague，如果刪去該先行詞，例句的結構便不完整，成為病句。

?? 連接代詞則沒有先行詞，如：

We dont know whom we should turn to for help.

［分析］這里的whom用作連接代詞，作“the person whom”解，字義中已含有先行詞“person”，故whom前不能再有先行詞。

2　表現(xiàn)在語法功能上。

關系代詞只能引導定語從句，在定語從句中作句子中某一成分。連接代詞引導的不是定語從句，而是主語從句、賓語從句和表語從句，在從句中也是作某一成分，即主語、賓語、定語或表語。如：

A. 引導主語從句。

Who will preside over the meeting is still unknown. 誰主持會議仍不得而知。［在從句中作主語］

What my future will be like is still uncertain. 我的前途如何仍是個未知數。［What充當介詞like的賓語在從句中與like一起用作表語］

Which is cause and which is effect（何者為因，何者為果）need not be argued（不需辯論，即不辯自明）.［在從句中作主語］

B. 引導賓語從句。

I went to him for help, and he gave me what money he had（把僅有的錢都給了我）.［在從句中作定語，what money he had=all the money that he had］

You know who he is and what he is（他是干什么的）.［在從句中都作表語］

This brings us to（使我們面臨）the problem of what is to be done（該怎么辦）.［在從句中作主語］

C. 引導表語從句。

The important thing is what a man does, not what he says.［在從句中作賓語］

Joesphine is not who she seemed to be（現(xiàn)在不像她本來的樣子）.［在從句中也作表語］

從上面例句中可以看出，連接代詞具有雙重語法功能：① 引導從句（主語從句、賓語從句或表語從句），② 在所引導的從句中作句子成分（主語、賓語、定語或表語）。在實際應用中，連接代詞who的格則取決于它的第二語法功能，即看它在所引導的從句中作什么成分而決定用who，whom，whose。如：

Do you know who broke the glass?

［分析］動詞know的賓語不是who，而是賓語從句who broke the glass，who在其引導的從句中作主語成分，故用who，不能用whom。

Whom you choose as your tutor（導師）matters a lot to you（對你關系很大）.

［分析］whom引導主語從句，但在其引導的主語從句中作choose的賓語，故用whom。

Do you know whose dictionary it is?

［分析］連接代詞whose引導一個賓語從句，在從句中whose作定語修飾dictionary，故用屬格whose。

例　Because they usually receive the same score on standardized examinations, there is often disagreement as to_____is the better student, Bob or Helen.

A. who

B. which

C. whom

D. whose

［分析］題中介詞as to的賓語是who引導的賓語從句（who is the better student, Bob or Helen），在該從句中who起主語作用，故應選A。

例　If you had told us earlier_____he was, we could have introduced him at the meeting.

A. who

B. which

C. whom

D. whoever

［分析］也應選A (who)，因在who引導的賓語從句中，主語是he，who作表語，即主語補語，需用主格。

2. 連接代詞和疑問代詞的轉化

1　連接代詞轉化為疑問代詞時的語序問題。

連接代詞用在直接的特殊疑問句中便稱為疑問代詞（Interrogative Pronoun），通常采用主謂倒裝的疑問句形式，但當疑問代詞用作主語或用作定語修飾主語時，主謂便不倒置。

A. 用作主語（主謂不倒置）。

Who is to take up the job? 誰來承擔這一項工作？

Whose is more practical? 誰的更實用些？

What happened next? 后來怎么樣？

Which is yours? 哪個是你的？

B. 用作賓語（主謂倒置）。

What do you mean? 你這是什么意思？

Which do you want? 你要哪一個？

Whose are you going to borrow? 你準備借誰的？

With whom did you go? 你和誰一起去的？

?? 注意，whom用作介詞賓語時，如果介詞移至句末，whom則改用主格，在口語體中尤其如此。如：

To whom do you wish to speak?

Who do you wish to speak to?

About whom are you talking?

Who are you talking about?

C. 用作表語（主謂倒置）。

Who are those men? 那些人是誰？

What is your mother? 你媽媽是干什么的？

Mary and Susan are twins（雙胞胎）and which is which（誰是誰）, can you tell me?［第二個which用作主語，但第一個which用作表語，故主謂仍需倒裝］

Whose is it? 這是誰的？

D. 用作定語（修飾表語或賓語，主謂倒置）。

Whose parasol is this? 這是誰的陽傘？

At which station should I change trains? 我應在哪個火車站換車？

What harm does it do after all? 這究竟有什么害處呢？

E. 用作定語（修飾主語，主謂不倒置）。

What books are in your bag? 你書包里有什么書？

Which train will leave for Beijing? 哪趟火車是開往北京的？

Whose bicycle was stolen last night? 昨晚誰的自行車被偷了？

?? 注意what和which在應用時含義上的區(qū)別。what指不定數目或范圍中的“什么”，which指一定數目或范圍中的“什么”。如：

What fruit do you like best? 你最喜歡什么水果？

Which do you like better, pears or apples? 梨和蘋果你更喜歡哪一個？

What book is he reading? 他在讀什么書？

Which book is he reading?（這幾本書中間）他在讀哪一本書？

例　One important aspect of the controversy of abortion (A) is whether a woman (B) should be permitted by law to have an (C) abortion and, if so, under which (D) circumstances.

［分析］乍看之下，我們會認為不是A錯便是C錯，但實際上A和C都對，因abortion（人工流產）可用作不可數名詞和可數名詞。

這句話意為“關于人工流產爭論的一個重要方面是，法律是否該允許婦女進行人工流產；如果允許的話，該在什么樣的情況下進行人工流產?！憋@然，題句并未說明在一定的或限定的情況下允許婦女進行人工流產，即無范圍限制，因而不能用which，故D錯，需改為what。

?? 但當特殊疑問句中含有do (did) you think (suppose, say, suggest, know)等插入語時，疑問代詞或疑問副詞不論在句中作什么成分主謂一概不倒置，即：

What do you think I ought to see first? 你認為我應該先看什么？

How long did she say she would stay here? 她說她要在這里待多久？

When do you know they will be back? 你知道他們什么時候回來？

Where do you suggest we should go during the summer holidays? 你建議我們暑假去哪里？

例　Theres a police car in front of our neighbors house. What do you suppose_____?

A. is happened

B. has happened

C. would happen

D. did happen

［分析］題中do you suppose是插入語，應選B。A錯，因happen是不及物動詞，不能用于被動語態(tài)。C和D不合時態(tài)。

2　疑問代詞轉化為連接代詞時的語序問題。

然而，當特殊疑問句充當另一句中的主語、賓語或表語時，該特殊疑問句就成為間接疑問句。在間接疑問句中，一律采用主謂不倒置的陳述句語序，這時疑問代詞也就轉化為連接代詞。這兒也順便說明一下，疑問副詞when，where，how，why在它們引導的間接疑問句中也轉化為連接副詞，語序也由主謂倒置的疑問句形式改為主謂不倒置的陳述句模式。試比較：

What are they after? 他們追求的是什么？［what是直接疑問句中的疑問詞，主謂倒置］

What they are after is profit.［what在其中的疑問句中引導主語從句，變成間接疑問句，主謂不倒置，what充當主語，也由疑問詞變成連接代詞］

At which station should I change trains?［直接疑問句，主謂倒置］

Could you tell me at which station I should change trains?［充當賓語從句，主謂不倒置］

Whose parasol is it?［主謂倒置］

Do you know whose parasol it is?［主謂不倒置，因充當賓語從句，成為間接疑問句］

Where is the booking office（售票處）?［主謂倒置］

Could you tell me where the booking office is?［間接疑問句，主謂不倒置］

How can we raise our efficiency?［主謂倒置］

Lets see how we can raise our efficiency.［間接疑問句，主謂不倒置］

由連接代詞或連接副詞所引導的間接疑問句的語序是一個在講、寫和測試中經常碰到的問題，需牢牢掌握。

例　Botanists are not sure where the first plant was grown or even_____.

A. what plant was

B. it was what plant

C. what plant was it

D. what plant it was

［分析］應選D，在上題中what plant it was系間接疑問句，須用主謂不倒置的陳述句語序。

例　It is not known exactly when (A) the first immigrants arrived (B) in the New World, but where did that event occur (C) is certain (D).

［分析］C錯。在but引導的并列句中，連接副詞where引導的疑問句充當主語從句，成為間接疑問句，也須用陳述句語序，主謂不能倒置，故把C改為where that event occurred。

3. 連接代詞的合成詞

1　連接代詞的合成。

who，whom，what，which同-ever構成合成連接代詞，相當于anyone who或anything that等。它們所指的對象是不確定的，在現(xiàn)代英語中用得很普遍。這些合成代詞可以引導主語從句和賓語從句，并在所引導的從句中作主語、賓語或定語，也就是說，它們具雙重語法功能。如：

A. whoever，whomever

Whoever breaks the law (=Anyone who breaks the law) shall be punished.［引導主語從句，在從句中作主語］

Women should enjoy complete freedom to marry whomever they might desire (=anyone whom they might desire).［引導賓語從句，在從句中作desire的賓語］

B. whichever

All the samples are here. You can take whichever you like (=any sample you like).［引導賓語從句，在從句中作like的賓語］

Ill buy whichever (=anything that) is cheapest.［引導賓語從句，在從句中作主語］

C. whatever

We give the decorator a free hand in doing our apartment over（讓裝潢的人放手重新裝修我們的公寓）. He may do whatever he likes (=anything that he likes).［引導賓語從句，在從句中作likes的賓語］

Rick is outspoken（心直口快）. Hell just say whatever comes into his head（想到什么就說什么）.［引導賓語從句，在從句中作主語］

例　Free theater tickets will be sent to_____phones us first.

A. whomever

B. whosoever

C. whoever

D. forever

［分析］根據上文所說，合成代詞的第一功能是引導從句，第二功能是在其所引導的從句中必須起到一個句子成分的作用，不是作主語就是作賓語或定語。此題中介詞to的賓語是一個從句，該從句已具備動賓結構（phones us），而缺主語，故應選C whoever。

從上題中也可看出，合成代詞whoever/whomever同連接代詞who/whom一樣，應視該合成代詞在它引導的從句中所作的句子成分而決定用主格形式whoever還是賓格形式whomever。

2　whatever，whichever，who(m)ever含義上的區(qū)別。

whatever和whichever在含義上的區(qū)別猶如what和which的區(qū)別。whatever指不定數目中的不論什么（用于物），who(m)ever指不定數目中的不論誰（用于人），兩詞均用于不限定的范圍；whichever指一定數目中的不論什么（用于人、物均可），用于限定的范圍內。試比較：

Whoever comes will be welcome. 誰來都會受到歡迎。［用于不限定的范圍，指人］

Ask whomever you like. 問一下你喜歡的任何人。［用于不限定的范圍，指人］

Whatever he does he does well. 不論干什么，他總是干得很好。［表示不限定的范圍，指事物］

One should stick to whatever one has begun. 不論著手做什么，都應鍥而不舍。［表示不限定的范圍，指事物］

Whichever of you comes in first in the hundred-meter dash（在百米賽跑中得第一名）will receive a prize.［指of you中的不論誰，范圍限定，用于人］

All the magazines are here. You can borrow whichever you want. 所有的雜志都在這里。你想借哪一本就借哪一本。［指這里所有雜志中的隨便哪一本，范圍限定，用于物］

例　“Is there any particular dessert you would like to have?”

“_____you select is all right with me.”

A. Whatever

B. One

C. Why

D. Whichever

［分析］題句的含義是表示一個在一定范圍內的選擇，故應選D (Whichever)，而不能選A (Whatever）。

4. 連接代詞what的用法

what在應用及應試中出現(xiàn)率很高，用法也較復雜，故專列一項加以說明。

1　what既可用于物，又可用于人。

用于物時同the thing(s) which/that，用于人時同the person that。如：

Thank you for the gift. This is exactly what I want.［用于物］

I like Durkin. He never pretends to be what he isnt. 我喜歡德金。他從不裝模作樣。［用于人］

上列的定義和例子說明what的含義已包括先行詞，它前面已不能再帶有先行詞，因而不能說This is the book what I want，但可以說This is the book that（或which）I want或This is what I want，換句話說，前面有先行詞時，則按情況用that, which或who;無先行詞時，必須用what。

例　Any meat what (A) has been preserved (B) by drying (C) is called (D)“jerky”.

［分析］A錯。因前面已有先行詞meat，需把what改為that。注意，先行詞meat為any所修飾，先行詞前有only，any或no時，不管指人或事物一律用that而不用which或who。

例　Gail Sheehys“Passage,”what (A) discusses (B) the continuing (C) psychological development of normal adults, is a most (D) profound and important book.

［分析］A錯，改為which，但不能用that，因所引導的是一個非限制性的定語從句。

2　what在其引導的從句中還可用作定語。

代詞what在它所引導的主語從句、賓語從句或表語從句中除作主語、賓語或表語外，還可作定語。如：

My uncle deposits what money (=all the money that) he saves in a bank. 我叔父把他所積攢的錢全存入銀行中了。

Dont worry. I will give you what help (=any help that或as much help as) I can. 別擔心，我會盡我所能幫助你。

例　The main facts in human life are five: birth, food, sleep, love and death. One could increase the number — breathing for instance — but these five are the most obvious. Let us briefly ask ourselves_____our lives.

A. they play in what part

B. they play what part in

C. what part they play in

D. in what part they play

［分析］應選C。注意上題中，One could increase the number后面省略了of the main facts。在what part they play in our lives這一賓語從句中，what作定語，what part置于從句句首，in our lives作狀語修飾play。D中介詞in的位置不當。B中what part應置于they play之前。A不合語法。

?? what在從句中作定語用時，還可以和few，little連用，修飾名詞，有時也可省去few，little，表示“盡管不多但已是全部……”的意思：

I will lend you what few reference books (=all the few reference books that) I can spare. 我愿把我現(xiàn)在不用的為數不多的參考書全部借給你。

We contributed what little money (=all the little money that) we had towards the earthquake-stricken area. 我們把僅有的為數不多的錢全捐獻給了地震災區(qū)。

?? 有時介詞可以放what前，也可以放在句末。如：

What did you do it for?=For what did you do it? (For what=Why)

但在以下短語中，介詞放what之前，屬固定搭配：

By what means did they get there?（憑什么方法）

In what circumstances will they give up?（在什么情況下）

In what respect are their measures better?（在哪方面）

At what time did he buy such a large house?（在什么時候）

In what way will you solve the problem?（用什么方式）

3　what作連接代詞時的兩個特殊結構。

A. what作連接代詞用時可用來表示比喻，即A is to B what X is to Y。

其中A、B是主體，X、Y是喻體，相當于漢語的“A對于B猶如（就如，正如）X對于Y一樣”。例如：

Intellect is to the mind what sight is to the body. 智力對于思想，猶如視力對于身體一樣。

Parks are to the city what lungs are to the body. 公園對于都市正如肺對于人的身體一樣。

在上列結構中what也可換用as，意思不變：

? Intellect is to the mind as sight is to the body.

? Parks are to the city as lungs are to the body.

例　Reading is to the mind_____food is to the body.

A. what

B. that

C. which

D. of which

［分析］顯然應選A，句意是“讀書對于思想猶如食物對于身體一樣?！?/p>

B. what is called, what we call, what they call 等表示“所謂的”。

This is what is called“market economy”. 這就是所謂的市場經濟。

It is what you call a“new fashion”. 這就是你所謂的“新潮”。

Some of what we call great books are written in blood and tears. 有些我們所稱的巨著都是用血淚寫成的。

C. what作為連接代詞通常用于引導插入語結構。

其句型是：what is (was)+比較級形容詞。在這一結構中what泛指下文所講的話，作“而且；更……；更有甚者”解：

Tom participated and, what is more surprising（尤其使人驚訝的是），won first prize.

I have the document and, what is more（而且），I mean to keep it.

Eddie is clever and, what is better still（而且），very diligent.

What was worse（更糟的是）, my father lost all his money in the business.

4　what的合成詞whatever作副詞用時的搭配。

what的合成詞whatever常和no，not，any，anything，nothing等并用在疑問句或否定句里，起副詞作用，作“一點也……（at all）”解：

There is no doubt whatever. 毫無疑問。

Is there any hope whatever? 有點希望嗎？

I know nothing of her whatever. 關于她我一點也不知道。

?? 需要注意的是，whatsoever也可這么用，但太正式，在現(xiàn)代英語里已極少用。故兩詞如同時出現(xiàn)在同一選擇題時，應選whatever。

例　“What do you think about Larry?”

“He has no sense_____.”他一點頭腦也沒有。

A. what

B. nevertheless

C. whatsoever

D. whatever

［分析］如果選擇中沒有whatever，可選C，但現(xiàn)在須選D，因whatsoever已遠遠不如whatever那么常用。

5　what的常用習語。

and what not 其他；等等

Mr. Parker sends me regularly some books, magazines, newspapers, pictorials and what not. 派克先生定期給我送來一些書籍、雜志、報紙、畫報等等。

give sb. what for 嚴斥（某人）；痛打（某人）

My father got angry with my little brother for playing truant and gave him what for. 我父親對我弟弟逃學動了肝火，把他打了一頓。

guess what 告訴你一個消息

Guess what! The boss is getting married! 告訴你一個好消息！老板快結婚了！

Ill tell you what 我有一個主意；我告訴你怎么辦

Ill tell you what: lets hide the money! 我有個主意：咱們把錢藏起來吧。

know whats what 內行；有判斷力

When it comes to statistics, he knows whats what. 談到統(tǒng)計學，他是內行。

Our manager will make a sensible decision; he knows whats what. 我們經理將作出一個明智的決定，他很有判斷力。

know what ones about 有頭腦；會處理困難局面

Theres no need to worry about your son. He knows what hes about. 不必為你兒子擔心，他很有頭腦。

Its a difficult task, but he knows what hes about. 這是個艱巨的任務，但他能處理。

or what 還是別的什么

Mr. Clinton is angry with me. I dont know whether Ive offended him or what. 克林頓先生在生我的氣，我不知道哪里得罪了他還是別的什么。

so what 那又怎么樣

A: He doesnt like you. 他可不喜歡你。

B: So what?（不喜歡我）那又怎么樣？

what about=how about ……怎么樣？

What about staying here till Sunday and leaving for San Jose next Monday? 我們在這里待到星期天，下星期一再去圣何塞，你看怎么樣？

what...do with... 處置；度過（時間等）

What shall we do with the back numbers of those magazines? 我們怎樣處理那些過期的雜志？

What did you do with yourself during the winter holidays? 你寒假是怎樣度過的？

what for或what...for 干嗎；做什么用

“Im going to Moscow.”“What for（干什么）?”

What did you do that for? 干嗎干那事？

Whats this for? 這做什么用？

what have you=and what not等等

If you want pencils, paper, reference books or what have you, please let me know. 如需要鉛筆、紙張、參考書或其他什么東西，請告訴我好了。

what if... 如果……怎么辦；要是……如何？

What if he finds out that you have lost his thesis? 如果他發(fā)現(xiàn)你弄丟了他的論文，那怎么辦？

whats what 具體情況；真相

It wont take you long to learn whats what in this job. 要不了多久，你就能了解這項工作中的具體情況。

Hell show you whats what in time. 他會及時把事情的真相告訴你的。

what of it 那又有什么關系；那又怎么樣？

A: Im afraid you have offended him（冒犯了他）.

B: Well, what of it（那又怎么樣呢）?

what with...and (what with) ……一則因……，一則因……；由于……種種原因

What with its inferior equipment and what with its outdated technique, the factory eventually closed down. 一方面由于設備差，一方面由于技術落后，該工廠終于倒閉了。

What with one thing and another, I cant come to you this Sunday. 由于種種原因，這個星期天我不能來你這兒了。

十一、不定代詞

不定代詞有all, both, each, every (-thing, -body, -one), nothing, nobody, no one, none, either, neither, other, another, one, many, much, some, no, enough等，其中一部分擬在一致性中講述。

多數不定代詞都能作主語、賓語、表語或定語，但none以及some, any, no, every的合成代詞（如someone, nobody等）只能作主語、賓語或表語，而every和no只能作定語。這里就實際應用中較為常見的不定代詞加以論述。

1. both，all

1　both和all用法上的區(qū)別。

both用于兩者，all用于三者及三者以上。故后面均跟復數名詞，動詞也采用復數形式：

A. 用作主語。

Both of us are fond of music.

All of us are fond of music.

B. 用作賓語。

Ill take both of the books with me.

Ill take all of the books with me.

C. 用作定語［注意the只可用在both和all后面，不能用在它們前面］。

Both (the) girls are out.

All (the) girls are out.

D. 用作同位語［位置在verb to be之后或實義動詞之前］。

在be后面

Juan and Adams are both to blame.

Juan, Mike and Adams are all to blame.

在實義動詞之前

Juan and Adams both agreed to cooperate.

Juan, Mike and Adams all agreed to cooperate.

2　在實際應用和應對考試時需注意的問題。

A. both和alike連用的問題。

both和alike一起用，這是個常見的錯誤，因alike等同于like one another，已含有“相互（both）”的意思：

（×）Bill and Freddy are both very much alike.

（√）Bill and Freddy are very much alike.［刪去both］

B. both和as well as連用的問題。

both可和and連用構成關聯(lián)連詞，但不能和as well as一起用：

（×）Eleanor knows both French as well as Spanish.

（√）Eleanor knows French as well as Spanish.

（√）Eleanor knows both French and Spanish.

C. both不能和two，together或each other連用。

（×）The two girls are both equally intelligent.［刪去both］

（×）They both appeared together.［刪去both］

（×）Both of them point a finger at each other. 他們倆相互指責。［刪去both，改為They point a finger at each other.］

D. both...and...后所接的單詞或短語在語法結構上須一致，即須采用平行或排比結構。

Both his hands and feet were hurt.（×，不平行）

Both his hands and his feet were hurt.（√，平行）

Both in Beijing and Shanghai.（×，不平行）

Both in Beijing and in Shanghai.（√，平行）

In both Beijing and Shanghai.（√，平行）

He enjoys a high reputation both at home and abroad.［√，at home是介詞短語，abroad是副詞，結構上看似不平行，但兩者都用作狀語，語法功能相同，也作為平行結構來處理］

E. both的幾個習語。

both of a hair 彼此一樣

The two guys are scoundrels, both of a hair. 這兩個家伙都是壞東西，是一路貨色。

both sides of the medal 問題的兩方面；事情的正反兩面

The person on the spot often has less chance of seeing both sides of the medal than the person at a distance. 當事人看問題往往不如旁觀者看得全面。

It is sensible to take both sides of the medal into account. 看問題要同時考慮正反兩面才是明智的。

good for both sides 兩全其美

I think his suggestion is, indeed, good for both sides. 我認為他的建議是兩全其美的。

F. both和all都強調整體，如要說明其中每一個，按習慣用法，應用each。

I sent a letter to both (or: all) of them. 意為：寫了一封信給他們兩個人（或所有的人）。

I sent a letter to each of them. 意為：給他們每一個人寫了一封信。

3　代詞all的用法。

A. all用作形容詞表示總括性的意思時接復數名詞。

表示“包括全體中的每一個或每一類”即“一切的；所有的”這一具有總括性的意思時，all接復數名詞。

All dogs are faithful animals.

All men are equal. 凡人皆平等。

We must defend our country at all costs. 我們必須不惜一切代價保衛(wèi)我們的國家。

Rescue ships looked for the missing boat in all directions. 救生船四處尋找那條失蹤的船。

B. all作形容詞，表示整體或集體概念時后接單數名詞。

all Europe 整個歐洲

all day 整天

all the world 全世界

all night 整夜

all ones life 整個一生；一輩子

all week 整個星期

all morning 整個上午

例　All (A) village tribe of the North American Indian confederacy（聯(lián)盟）had its annual (B) green corn dance, a festival (C) in which socialties (D) were renewed.

［分析］句意表示的是“北美印第安人聯(lián)盟中的每一個村莊部落”，著重的不是總括性而是個體性，而且句中出現(xiàn)單數物主代詞its，可見all是錯的，應把A改為every。

C. all作形容詞表示“any”或“the greatest possible”時，all通常接單數名詞。

As the task was urgent, we worked with all speed (=with the greatest possible speed). 因任務緊急，我們以盡可能快的速度工作。

We welcome all criticism (=any criticism) of our work. 歡迎對我們的工作提出任何批評。

D. all作形容詞用在否定句里，表示“一點也沒有”時，接單數名詞。

The authenticity of the news is beyond all doubt. 這則消息的可靠性是不容懷疑的。［beyond all doubt=beyond any doubt］

That his conclusion is correct is past all dispute. 他的結論是正確的，這一點無可爭辯。［past all dispute=past any dispute］

E. all用作形容詞時三個常見的搭配。

? of all+復數名詞

系習慣表達法，相當于漢語“偏偏”的意思：

He disappeared on his wedding day of all days. 他偏偏在他結婚的那天失蹤。

Why ask him, of all people? 干嗎偏偏問他？

Well, of all things! 唔，萬萬想不到！

? almost+all

almost和all常搭配使用，但most和all則不能連用，這是一個較為常見的錯。

例　Buying (A) the textbooks for his course, paying his tuition, and renting a locker took most (B) all the money he had (C) saved from (D) his summer job.

［分析］B錯，把most改為almost，便可和all連用。

注：tuition［tjui∫n］ n. 學費　locker［l?k?］ n. 寄物柜

例　I like eating in the cafeteria. I like_____food.

A. almost all the

B. the most of

C. nearly all of

D. almost of the

［分析］應選A。C需在of后另加the，即nearly all of the food，但不及almost all of the food普通。B和D均不合語法。

? for（或with）+all+ones表示“盡管……”

For all their opposition, I will go my own way. 不管他們怎么反對，我仍走自己的路。

With all his wealth, he is not happy. 盡管他十分富有，他并不幸福。

F. all作代詞意指“the whole number, quantity or amount (of)”時，可用于單復數場合。

a. 復數場合。

All of the people are in favor of the plan.［代詞all用作主語］

They all went together.［all用作復數主語they的同位語］

b. 單數場合。

All of the information is outdated.

All of the wine is spilt（潑翻了）.

The child ate all of the cake.

注意：上面五例中單數及復數名詞前的定冠詞the不能省去，all of后面賓語的數決定謂語動詞的數。

c. 代詞all單獨使用時后面動詞數的問題。

① 作“all people”解時，接復數動詞：

All are agreed. 大家一致同意。

All are silent. 大家都不吭聲。

All were saved except a sick old man. 除一個生病的老人外，所有的人都被救出來了。

All that live must die. 生者必有死。

② 作“everything”解時，接單數動詞：

All was silent. 萬籟俱寂。

All is over. 一切都過去了。

All is well. 一切都好/一切順利。

G. 代詞all在句中的正確位置。

all的正常位置應放在be動詞后面或放在實義動詞前面。如要強化all的意思，可用all of us代替all，句中的位置同all。

All were covered with flakes of snow（雪片，雪花）.

All of us were covered with flakes of snow.

We were all covered with flakes of snow.

We were all of us covered with flakes of snow.

試比較下列的all結構：

all dictionaries（√）［泛指一切辭典］

all such dictionaries（√）［指所有這樣的辭典］

all these dictionaries（√）［英式英語］

all those dictionaries（√）［英式英語］

all his/my dictionaries（√）［英式英語］

all of dictionaries（×）［無此結構，應在dictionaries前加上the］

all of such dictionaries（×）［應去掉of（such代替of時便需去掉of）］

all of these dictionaries（√）［美式英語］

all of those dictionaries（√）［美式英語］

all of his/my dictionaries（√）［美式英語］

注：all有時后面可跟兩個同位語，例如：

All we students like music.

H. 代詞all與物主代詞的連用。

代詞all可用于物主代詞后面，起名詞作用，意指“所有的一切”：

Professor Maxwell gave his all to the university where he taught. 麥斯威爾教授把一切都獻給了他執(zhí)教的那所大學。

Mr. Block lost his all in the fire. 布拉克先生在那場火災中失去了一切。

表示這一意義時，all和單數動詞連用：

This is my little all. 這是我的全部所有。

I. all用作副詞時數的問題。

all也可作副詞，這時可用于單數主語后面：

I am all (=completely) in favor of your suggestion.

Michael is all (=entirely) wrong in his conjecture（猜測）.

4　both，all，every和not連用時所表示的否定意義。

both，all，every和not連用時所表示的是部分否定（partial negation），不是全部否定（whole negation）：

Both brothers are not here.

Both of the brothers are not here.

The brothers are both not here.

?? 上列三例意指部分否定，作“兩兄弟不都在這里”解，即“一個在，一個不在”。如要全部否定，則用neither，neither表示對兩者都否定：

Neither brother（或Neither of the brothers）is here.

Life is not all cakes and ales. 人生并不就是吃喝玩樂。

All my friends do not smoke. 我的朋友并不個個都吸煙。

All men can not be artists. 不是所有的人都能成為藝術家的。

Everything he said was not correct. 他所說的話不是每句都正確的。

?? 以上三個例句通常是用下列的方式來表達的；這樣，部分否定的意思就很明顯：

Not all my friends smoke.

Not all men can be artists.

Not everything he said was correct.

?? 如果改成全部否定，則用none，none表示三者或三者以上的全部否定：

None of my friends smoke.

None can be artists.

None of what he said was correct.

掌握上述表示部分否定的結構不僅有助于我們正確理解句意，而且在對外交往中還可避免不必要的誤解。據說多年前某外貿公司的一位外銷員收到英國一家公司的來信，要求推銷他們的產品，那時恰逢該外貿公司無進口額度，故該外銷員把來信往抽屜一放了事。不久，英國公司來信催復，該外銷員原來的復文是：We regret we are not interested in your products. 但為了強調起見，原來的復文中再加上all一字，即We are not interested in all your products。這樣一來，反而弄巧成拙，因not和all連用構成部分否定的含義，復文的意思便變成“很抱歉，我們對你們的產品不是都感興趣的。”英國公司立即抓住這一語言上的漏洞來信說“Then how about those products you are interested in?”使該外銷員陷入尷尬的局面。莎士比亞也曾運用這一部分否定結構講了一句富于哲理性的名言：All is not gold that glitters. 這句話是“All that glitters is not gold”的強勢式，句子表示了一個部分否定含義，即“閃光發(fā)亮的不都是金子?！?/p>

J. all的慣用語

all over

① 全部結束，完蛋

When will the league football matches be all over? 足球聯(lián)賽將何時結束？

If the old patient suffers another relapse of the heart ailment, we are afraid it will be all over with him. 該老年病人的心臟病如再發(fā)作一次，恐怕他就要完了。

② 典型地

Michael arrived late and very untidy again — thats Michael all over. 邁克爾又衣衫不整地姍姍來遲——他就是這個樣子（或：這種本性）。

all over but the shouting 大功告成，大局已定，勝負已定

After three rounds of competition, the volleyball match was all over but the shouting. 三輪賽程過后，排球比賽結果已成定局。

Tom worked hard in college and graduated with honors last month. When he got his diploma, he said,“Its all over but the shouting.”湯姆念大學時刻苦用功，上個月作為優(yōu)等生畢業(yè)。他拿到畢業(yè)文憑時說，“大功告成了?！?/p>

all round 全面地，在各方面

Things look much better all round. 看來各方面情況有很多好轉。

not all that+形容詞 不那么……

I dont agree with you. He is not all that bad. 我不同意你的想法。他不是那么壞。

I never knew he was all that good at playing the violin. 我從不知道他小提琴竟拉得那么出色。

all round the clock 日夜，24小時

The shop does business all round the clock. 該商店日夜（或：24小時）營業(yè)。

Our factory operates all round the clock on three shifts. 我們工廠日夜三班倒。

注：在現(xiàn)代英語中也往往用round the clock來替代all round the clock

be all over sb 向某人獻殷勤

He wallows in money. Thats why those flatterers are all over him. 他富有得在錢里打滾（或：他腰纏萬貫）。所以那幫馬屁精老是圍著他獻殷勤。

注：“富有得在錢里打滾”也可用“He is rolling in money.”來表達。“馬屁精”flatterer一詞有很多同義詞，較為常見的有sycophant，creeper，spaniel，subservient，lickspittle，toady等。作者列舉這些同義詞也客觀上說明外國人中庸俗的人也為數不少。順便一提，“馬屁拍到馬腳上”可用“flatter a person the wrong way”來表達。

be all in all to sb 是某人最愛的人或物

His son is all in all to him in the world. 在這個世界上他的兒子是他最愛的人。

be all in all to each other 相依為命；親密無間

Mr. Tyler passed away two years ago. Since then, the mother and the daughter have been all in all to each other. 泰勒先生兩年前逝世，自那以后，母女倆相依為命。

The two of them found so much in common that they regretted not having met earlier. Soon they were all in all to each other. 他們倆說得情投意合，只恨相見之晚。不久他們便親密無間了

all in all 總的說來，從各方面來說

All in all, our research project is a big success. 總的來說，我們的研究計劃非常成功。

all the best（告別用語或書信結語）祝一切順利，萬事如意

注：all the best是May all the best things happen to you的簡便說法。

when all is said and done 說到底

When all is said and done, Hilary is a most remarkable woman with a strong and sterling character.

說到底，希拉里是個非常出色的婦女，性格堅強而純正。

all talk and no action 只說不做

Dont take any notice of David, he is all talk and no action. 別理戴維，他只會夸夸其談。

be all thumbs 手指不靈巧；笨手笨腳

Poor Bob cant play the piano at all. He is all thumbs. 可憐的鮑勃根本彈不來鋼琴，他手指一點也不靈巧。

Speaking of doing household chores, my husband is indeed all thumbs. 說起做家務來，我先生實在是笨手笨腳。

go all out 竭盡全力

The weather is bound to change soon. We must go all out to get the harvest in quickly. 天氣很快會變，我們得竭盡全力趕快搶收。

all sorts and conditions of men 各種各樣的人；各階層的人

You will meet with all sorts and conditions of men during your trip. 在旅途中，你會遇到各種各樣的人。

all the cry 流行；時尚，時髦

Clothes of simple style are now all the cry. 簡單款式的衣服現(xiàn)在很流行。

注：“很時髦，很流行”也可用“all the go，all the fashion，all the rage或all the vogue”來表達。

go all the way to do sth 盡最大努力做某事

The writer went all the way to complete his novel in time. 該作者盡最大努力按期完成了他的長篇小說。

go all the way with sb 同某人意見完全一致

I agree with much of what you do, but I can not go all the way with you. 在許多方面我都同意你所做的，但不是什么都同意。

all the way from.. to...=between... and... 在……和……之間

The damage made by the earthquake and tsunami in Japan is estimated all the way from 2.5 to 3 billion US dollars. 日本地震和海嘯造成的損失估計在25到30億美元之間。

all very fine 聽起來或看起來很好（而實際不然）

What you said is all very fine, but how to put it into practice? 你所說的聽起來不錯，但怎么把它付諸實施呢？

all yours 拿去吧！全送你！

These books and novels are all yours. 這些書和小說全送給你了。

be at an all-time high/low ……空前地高漲/……處于歷來最低點

Prices are at an all-time high. 物價空前高漲。

Relations between the two countries are at an all-time low. 這兩國關系比以往任何時候更糟糕。

注：在上例這個all-time習用語中，record可用來替代all-time，意思不變，如be at a record high/a record low。此外，還可用動詞reach, hit, rise, ascend, fall, drop等來替換be。如Prices reach (hit) an all-time high./Output falls (drops) to an all-time low./Stock prices dropped (fell) to an all-time low. 股票價格跌入歷史低谷。

2. either，neither，any，each，none，every，some

1　either的用法及句型。

either用于兩者，作“兩者中任何一個都……”解，可作名詞及形容詞用，其句型是：

either（名詞）of the+復數名詞+單數動詞

either（形容詞）+單數名詞+單數動詞

如：Either of these words is correct. 這兩個字哪一個都正確。［句中these words只能指兩個字，因either含有“兩者中任何一個”之意］

Either word (=Either of these words) is correct.

2　either和each的區(qū)別。

either指“兩者中每一個”，但只限于兩者，兩者以上需用each（each也可用于兩者）。

There are two books. Either of you can take one.（√）

There happen to be（碰巧有）three books. Either of you three can take one.（×）［應把Either改為Each］

3　neither的用法。

neither意指“兩者中任何一個都不……”，用法和either完全相同：

這兩個字哪一個都不正確。

Neither of these words is correct.

Neither word is correct.

例　Having studied your report carefully, we are convinced (A) that neither (B) of your suggestions (C) are (D) workable.

［分析］D錯。neither of跟復數名詞，但接單數動詞，故把are改為is。

4　either和both在含義上的差別。

either和both可互換使用，意義不變。either著重兩者中的每一個，both則著重兩者的整體。

The street is lined with trees on both sides.［指街道的兩邊樹木成行］

The street is lined with trees on either side.［指街道的每一邊］

Both of them are good enough for me.［指兩者整體］

Either of them is good enough for me.［指兩者中每一個］

例　The relationship (A) of Latin American music to Black music in the United States is clearly evident (B) in the unaccented beats that are (C) common to either (D).

［分析］句意是“拉丁美洲音樂同美國黑人音樂的關系明顯地表現(xiàn)在這兩種音樂各自存在著無重音節(jié)拍這一共同點上。”故D中的either用作名詞，后面省略了（of them），them指Latin American music及Black music。在此句中either換用both也可。either表示“兩種音樂中的任何一種”，著重個體，both則表示“兩種音樂都……”，強調的是整體。試題中錯的是B，形容詞evident已包含clear之意，因而clearly evident犯了修辭上被稱為重疊（redundancy）的毛病，需把clearly刪掉。

上面講述了either和both的可換性，但需注意，在個別情況下這兩字就不能換用。如：

You may go either way. 兩條路走哪條都可以。

You may go both ways. 兩條路都可以走，變成“同時可以走兩條不同的道路”，不合邏輯。

5　any的用法。

any指“三者或三者以上中的任何一個”，動詞也采用單數形式：

Any (one) of these three words is correct.

Any of my friends（指三個或三個以上）is able to do it.

?? 比較either和any

Do you know any of the teachers?［至少有三個老師］

Do you know either of the teachers?［只有兩個老師］

I dont like any of them. (=I like none of them.)

I dont like either of them. (=I like neither of them.)

6　none的用法。

none指“三者或三者以上中的任何一個都不”，是三者或三者以上的否定詞。如：

None of these three words are (is) correct.

None of my friends are (is) able to do it.

關于none of后面的動詞的數的問題，“一致性”一章會詳細敘述。具體情況請大家參閱相關說明。

7　any修飾主語或any的復合詞作主語時需注意的問題。

any修飾主語或any的復合詞用作主語時，后面不能跟否定謂語動詞。如：

Any book cannot solve this problem.（×）

Any man cannot lift this mahogany（紅木）chair with one hand.（×）

Anything does not attract his attention.（×）

Anybody cannot read so fast as he does.（×）

上面列舉的四個句子都是漢語思維的中式英語，不合英語習慣表達法，應改為：

? No book can solve this problem.

? No man（或None）can lift this mahogany chair with one hand.

? Nothing attracts his attention.

? Nobody can read so fast as he does.

8　any和some用法上的區(qū)別。

any和some作代詞時的用法和作形容詞用時一樣，any用于否定句、條件句或疑問句；some則用于肯定句。

I want a few envelopes. If you have any, give me some.［any用于條件從句，some用于肯定主句］

I am looking for some matches.［some作形容詞用于肯定句中］

Have you any matches?［any作形容詞用于疑問句］

I havent any matches.［any作形容詞用于否定句］

?? 如果期待對方的肯定答復時，問句則用some，而不用any。試看下面兩個疑問句用some所表示的含義：

Is someone coming this evening?［含義是：對方正在忙著作準備，估計今晚肯定有人來］

Have you lost something?［含義是：你看來在找東西，估計丟了什么東西］

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